Perkins, D. N. (1985). The fingertip effect: how information-processing technology shapes thinking. Educational Researcher, 14, 11-17, http://edr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/14/7/11, DOI: 10.3102/0013189X014007011
Summary/Analysis
As the title suggests the article discusses how the brain processes various types of information while using technological devices. The author focuses on the aspects of hand written information versus the introduction of word processing. He discusses how the thinking process is affected very differently between the two approaches. In conjunction the text goes on to explore the effects of how technology, particularly programming languages (the writing language of computers), may or may not affect critical and cognitive thinking. The piece proposes that that the brain will adapt to various uses of technology and change in certain basic ways. The author goes on to compare the adaptation of literacy in print and how society reacted to it years ago to how society reacts to technology today.
The thought comes across that we all still need the basic reading and writing skills before moving on to higher levels of thinking. For example if one does not know how to communicate well or has very limited literacy skills he or she will not advance in the area through technological resources alone. I would have to agree on this level that if we do not acquire basic learning and thinking skills it is impossible to advance through technology alone, with maybe exception to speech impediment software, medical conditions, etc.
The article had some valid points about technology and the affects on the thought process. Yet I thought the article was outdated at this time. I also would have liked to read more concrete research facts and focus group studies to back up the author’s ideas. Overall the text contained some interesting facts and thoughts but not enough evidence to support the main idea.
Resources/Quotes
“This study showed that when factors such as composing time, topic, and composing procedures are held constant, sustained change in revising strategy depends on instruction (i.e. by the prompting program) more than on a writing instrument like the word processing program that could facilitate revising. It also takes more than a school year, even with typing instruction, for junior high school students to become as fluent with the computer as they are with pen. The evidence for this conclusion is that students' texts on the computer include fewer words than those in pen, and these texts on the computer receive lower holistic quality ratings” (12-13).
“For what such "data" are worth, it seems that students have trouble coming up with really interesting questions to ask of the data base” (13).
Wednesday, October 28, 2009
Tuesday, October 27, 2009
Kovalik, S. J., & Olsen, K. D. (2005). Exceeding Expectations: A User's Guide to Implementing Brain Research in the Classroom. Federal Way: Susan Kovalik & Associates, Inc..
Summary:
Chapter 1- Intelligence as a Function of Experience: After an insightful overview of the ITI Model, which lays the foundation for the rest of the book, Kovalik and Olsen present the “biology of learning.” They explain the fundamental changes that take place in the learning brain and refute the idea that genetics determine one’s ability to learn. Quoting Dr. John Ratey, “We are not prisoners of our genes or our environment. Poverty, alienation, drugs, hormonal imbalances, and depression do not dictate failure. Wealth, acceptance, vegetables, and exercise don’t guarantee success. Our own free will may be the strongest force directing the development of our brains, and therefore our lives… the brain, [child and adult] is both plastic and resilient, and always eager to learn. Experiences, thoughts, actions, and emotions actually change the structure of our brains.” The brain becomes measurably more dense and heavier in response to rich sensory input from an enriched environment, and conversely one’s brains can measurably shrink in a reduced enrichment. Kovalik and Olsen go on to translate all of this research into action in the form of nine “body-brain compatible elements.” (1.6)
Summary:
Chapter 1- Intelligence as a Function of Experience: After an insightful overview of the ITI Model, which lays the foundation for the rest of the book, Kovalik and Olsen present the “biology of learning.” They explain the fundamental changes that take place in the learning brain and refute the idea that genetics determine one’s ability to learn. Quoting Dr. John Ratey, “We are not prisoners of our genes or our environment. Poverty, alienation, drugs, hormonal imbalances, and depression do not dictate failure. Wealth, acceptance, vegetables, and exercise don’t guarantee success. Our own free will may be the strongest force directing the development of our brains, and therefore our lives… the brain, [child and adult] is both plastic and resilient, and always eager to learn. Experiences, thoughts, actions, and emotions actually change the structure of our brains.” The brain becomes measurably more dense and heavier in response to rich sensory input from an enriched environment, and conversely one’s brains can measurably shrink in a reduced enrichment. Kovalik and Olsen go on to translate all of this research into action in the form of nine “body-brain compatible elements.” (1.6)
- Enriched Environment
- Meaningful Content
- Collaboration
- Movement
- Choices
- Adequate Time
- Immediate Feedback
- Mastery
- Absence of Threat/Nurturing Reflective Thinking
Each of the nine elements is then described fully with connections to curriculum development and instructional strategies for the classroom. To provide the most sensory input, and therefore the greatest amount of learning, students should be given real world opportunities and connections to their learning. They should be working in groups based on skills and interests, have the opportunity to move around, and be given choice to enhance their intelligence. Students need time, positive and immediate feedback, and a nurturing environment to achieve mastery of the skills and knowledge that we expect of them.
Reflection:
Linking brain research with good teaching practices and effective curriculum design makes too much sense. In public education, so much time and money is thrown at the next big thing, but it seems like very little time or money is spent finding out what is really going to be effective in ensuring that every child learns and succeeds. The idea that an impoverished brain has the capability for growth once immersed in an enriched environment must be the cornerstone in developing curriculum for students who are less than proficient. According to their research, everything we do at our school for these students is in direct opposition to the recommendations for optimal learning. We are giving them nothing but secondhand input, content that has no connection or meaning to their real lives, and little opportunity to work together or make choices about their learning.
Quotes:
“[Our brains] grow many more connections than they need and then get rid of those that are not used.” (1.5)
“…20 words used in a real-world conversation at a being there location. Inviting the brain to associate words meanings in multiple locations in the brain makes the learning and recall easier, faster, and increased the number of memory “hooks” that can be used to recall.” (1.5)
“The two kinds of input least used in classrooms, being there and immersion, provide the most sensory input. Conversely, the two most commonly used, secondhand and symbolic, provide the least sensory input.” (1.7)
“The only way to overcome the disparity of experiences that students bring to the classroom is to provide the sensory input that leads to concept development through being there experiences. If we were truly committed to leveling the playing field for students, we would focus time and resources on those subjects that allow us to overcome gaps in students’ prior experiences most quickly.” (1.14)
Teaching ESL Students To Read and Write Experimental-Research Papers
- Teaching ESL Students to Read and Write Experimental-Research Papers
- Susan S. Hill, Betty F. Soppelsa and Gregory K. West
- TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. 3 (Sep., 1982), pp. 333-347
This article talks about how to teach writing ESL students by focusing on subject area specific English.
Student Co-researchers: How principals can recruit, train and enlist the help of students to examine what works and does not work in their schools.
Yonezawa, S & Jones, M. (2007), “Student Co-researchers: How principals can recruit, train and enlist the help of students to examine what works and does not work in their schools”, NAASP Bulletin, Vol 9 No. 4, 322-342.
Summary
The research focuses on 11 high schools in San Diego whose principals, looking for ways to improve teaching and learning, worked in conjunction with UCSD’s CREATE (Center for Research on Educational Equity) program to use students as co-researchers in order to provide ways for teachers and administrators to actively engage in school reform. The research took place over a 2 year period where high school students worked alongside university researchers to interview teachers and gather data then debriefed with principals. The students groups which participated as co-researchers consisted of a variety of backgrounds, ethnicities, and academic backgrounds. The students were chosen as represented of each schools demographics. The purpose was to help educators develop a deeper understanding of the role student voices can play in teaching, learning, engagement and social justice.
Students gathered information in a two primary methods; some conducted interviews with teachers, while others participated in class observations. All finding were presented directly back to the school principals in a debrief session where principals were given opportunities to ask deeper more clarifying questions regarding the findings. Some of the findings that students reported on where less student engagement in large classes, inequitable class size in various classes and a better appreciation for teachers efforts. Student researchers were also encouraged to offer suggestions, which some principals welcomed.
In conclusion, the researchers at the CREATE program realized the design and implementation o student co-research teams need to be very carefully planned out by principals and teachers. Teachers need to be briefed about the purpose and students must be carefully trained on how to collect data. Overall, the findings showed that student voice is an important contribution when principals and administrators are considering reform.
Summary
The research focuses on 11 high schools in San Diego whose principals, looking for ways to improve teaching and learning, worked in conjunction with UCSD’s CREATE (Center for Research on Educational Equity) program to use students as co-researchers in order to provide ways for teachers and administrators to actively engage in school reform. The research took place over a 2 year period where high school students worked alongside university researchers to interview teachers and gather data then debriefed with principals. The students groups which participated as co-researchers consisted of a variety of backgrounds, ethnicities, and academic backgrounds. The students were chosen as represented of each schools demographics. The purpose was to help educators develop a deeper understanding of the role student voices can play in teaching, learning, engagement and social justice.
Students gathered information in a two primary methods; some conducted interviews with teachers, while others participated in class observations. All finding were presented directly back to the school principals in a debrief session where principals were given opportunities to ask deeper more clarifying questions regarding the findings. Some of the findings that students reported on where less student engagement in large classes, inequitable class size in various classes and a better appreciation for teachers efforts. Student researchers were also encouraged to offer suggestions, which some principals welcomed.
In conclusion, the researchers at the CREATE program realized the design and implementation o student co-research teams need to be very carefully planned out by principals and teachers. Teachers need to be briefed about the purpose and students must be carefully trained on how to collect data. Overall, the findings showed that student voice is an important contribution when principals and administrators are considering reform.
Goal-Setting and Self-Assessment Activities in a Tertiary Education Environment
Kato, Fumie (2009). Language Teaching Research. Student preferences: Goal-setting and self-assessment activities in a tertiary education environment. 13(177). doi:10.1177/1362168809103447
This article reports the results of student preferences with respect to intervention students integrated into college level Japanese language cources in two consecutive years. The inital students was entitle 'Goal List Project'; the subsequent amended study was entitled 'Self-Assessment Project'. The former project requred the students to set indivdiual goals and to commit to the goals in a written document. On the basis of the analysis of the students' responses, the second study excluded the written goal ist requirement. Both projects contained common elements of student reflection, self-assessment, documentation of problems/commonets and written instructor feedback. (Kato summary)
This article reports the results of student preferences with respect to intervention students integrated into college level Japanese language cources in two consecutive years. The inital students was entitle 'Goal List Project'; the subsequent amended study was entitled 'Self-Assessment Project'. The former project requred the students to set indivdiual goals and to commit to the goals in a written document. On the basis of the analysis of the students' responses, the second study excluded the written goal ist requirement. Both projects contained common elements of student reflection, self-assessment, documentation of problems/commonets and written instructor feedback. (Kato summary)
Blending "Hand Work" and "Brain Work": Can Multiple Pathways Deepen Learning?
Rose, M. (2008). Blending “hand work” and “brain work”: can multiple pathways deepen learning? In J. Oakes & M. Saunders (Eds.) Beyond tracking: multiple pathways to college, career, and civic participation (pp. 21-35). Cambridge: Harvard Education Press.
The first chapter of Beyond Tracking explores the common understandings and misconceptions of Multiple Pathways. This article focus on perspectives of CTE (Career and Technical Education) and provides an alternative discussion about Multiple Pathways and student learning. Mike Rose discusses the key features of good career and technical education programs and concludes the following are essential:
1. Many tasks students do are authentic with consequences
2. Tasks are rich in opportunities to develop knowledge, solve problems, make discussions, reflect on practice, etc.
3. Tradition academic pursuits are embedded in these tasks.
4. Student assessment is authentic
5. Learning environments are real world work based
6. Blended with the cognitive and technical are craft values, ethical concerns and aesthetics
7. Good teachers share predictable characteristics
In addition to the essential components of CTE, Rose also introduces the barriers to achieving the goals of CTE. His discussion hi-lights many of the challenges to Multiple Pathways including rethinking our definition of intelligence and accommodating student interests.
The purpose of Rose’s contribution to the greater book, is to give more clarification to the goals and purpose of Career and Technical Education. His article serves as an introduction to the rest of the book that includes discussions about Multiple Pathways and societal benefit, the future of democracy, and improved student outcomes.
“The effect is to depict CTE as cognitively inferior not only in its practice (which, sadly, t can be) but also in its essence. This depiction inflames long-standing subject area battles between CTE and academic folk and reinscribes cultural biases and simplifications about manual versus mental activity, blue-collar work versus white-collar, hand versus brain” (Rose, 24).
“The first challenge must be to the concept of intelligence itself: its definition, the limits of our standard measures of it, and our lack of appreciation for its manifestation in the everyday” (Rose, 31).
“Our notion of intelligence is strongly influenced by the IW test and traditional verbal and quantitative school tasks… but what about all the other ways that intellectual ability reveals itself” (Rose 31).
J. Oakes, Keeping Track: How Schools Structure Inequality (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985); S. Lucas, Tracking Inequality: Stratification and Mobility in American High Schools (New York: Teachers College Press, 1999).
J. Oakes, “Can Tracking Research Inform Practice?” Educational Researcher 21, no. 4 (1992): 12-22.
The first chapter of Beyond Tracking explores the common understandings and misconceptions of Multiple Pathways. This article focus on perspectives of CTE (Career and Technical Education) and provides an alternative discussion about Multiple Pathways and student learning. Mike Rose discusses the key features of good career and technical education programs and concludes the following are essential:
1. Many tasks students do are authentic with consequences
2. Tasks are rich in opportunities to develop knowledge, solve problems, make discussions, reflect on practice, etc.
3. Tradition academic pursuits are embedded in these tasks.
4. Student assessment is authentic
5. Learning environments are real world work based
6. Blended with the cognitive and technical are craft values, ethical concerns and aesthetics
7. Good teachers share predictable characteristics
In addition to the essential components of CTE, Rose also introduces the barriers to achieving the goals of CTE. His discussion hi-lights many of the challenges to Multiple Pathways including rethinking our definition of intelligence and accommodating student interests.
The purpose of Rose’s contribution to the greater book, is to give more clarification to the goals and purpose of Career and Technical Education. His article serves as an introduction to the rest of the book that includes discussions about Multiple Pathways and societal benefit, the future of democracy, and improved student outcomes.
“The effect is to depict CTE as cognitively inferior not only in its practice (which, sadly, t can be) but also in its essence. This depiction inflames long-standing subject area battles between CTE and academic folk and reinscribes cultural biases and simplifications about manual versus mental activity, blue-collar work versus white-collar, hand versus brain” (Rose, 24).
“The first challenge must be to the concept of intelligence itself: its definition, the limits of our standard measures of it, and our lack of appreciation for its manifestation in the everyday” (Rose, 31).
“Our notion of intelligence is strongly influenced by the IW test and traditional verbal and quantitative school tasks… but what about all the other ways that intellectual ability reveals itself” (Rose 31).
J. Oakes, Keeping Track: How Schools Structure Inequality (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985); S. Lucas, Tracking Inequality: Stratification and Mobility in American High Schools (New York: Teachers College Press, 1999).
J. Oakes, “Can Tracking Research Inform Practice?” Educational Researcher 21, no. 4 (1992): 12-22.
Recursive Processes in Self-affirmation: Intervening to Close the Minority Achievement Gap
Cohen, G.L., Garcia, J., Purdie-Vaughns, V., Apfel, N., & Brzustoski, P. (2009). Recursive processes in self-affirmation: Intervening to close the minority achievement gap. Science, 324, 400-403.
Summary:
This journal article presents the results of a multi-year study focusing on an educational intervention to reduce the minority achievement gap. The intervention was a series of brief but structured writing assignments that asked students to reflect on an important personal value. The researchers found that this subtle intervention reduced the racial achievement gap. Over two years, the grade point average of African Americans was, on average, raised by 0.24 grade points. Low achieving African American students' GPA improved by 0.41 points, and their rate of remediation or grade repetition was reduced from 18% to 5%. This study illustrates the powerful effect of self-affirmation interventions in reducing minority students' psychological threat related to being negatively stereotyped in school.
The results of this study are highly reliable because the researchers set up a randomized field experiment and followed up on the results over several years to determine the long-term impact of a psychological intervention. This article would be useful to teachers who are interested in strategies for addressing the achievement gap in their classrooms. Evidence that psychological threats about negative stereotypes can be reduced through self-affirmations also has implications for school leaders interested in building a culture of equity within their schools.
Summary:
This journal article presents the results of a multi-year study focusing on an educational intervention to reduce the minority achievement gap. The intervention was a series of brief but structured writing assignments that asked students to reflect on an important personal value. The researchers found that this subtle intervention reduced the racial achievement gap. Over two years, the grade point average of African Americans was, on average, raised by 0.24 grade points. Low achieving African American students' GPA improved by 0.41 points, and their rate of remediation or grade repetition was reduced from 18% to 5%. This study illustrates the powerful effect of self-affirmation interventions in reducing minority students' psychological threat related to being negatively stereotyped in school.
The results of this study are highly reliable because the researchers set up a randomized field experiment and followed up on the results over several years to determine the long-term impact of a psychological intervention. This article would be useful to teachers who are interested in strategies for addressing the achievement gap in their classrooms. Evidence that psychological threats about negative stereotypes can be reduced through self-affirmations also has implications for school leaders interested in building a culture of equity within their schools.
Monday, October 26, 2009
An Ethic of Excellence
An Ethic of Excellence
Berger, R. (2003) An ethic of excellence. New Hampshire: Heinemann.
Summary:
I read the Introduction and first chapter of Ron Berger’s book An Ethic of Excellence. In this book Berger uses his experience as a veteran teacher and carpenter to illustrate how he has built a classroom with an ethic, or culture, of excellence. In the Introduction he describes his life long passion for strong, accurate, beautiful work. Berger explains that beautiful work goes beyond aesthetics. Beautiful work is the product of craftsmen. A craftsman, like a student, he believes, is “someone who has integrity and knowledge, who is dedicated to his work and who is proud of what he does and who he is. Someone who thinks carefully and does things well.”
In the second chapter, Berger explains his experiences as an archiver of excellence and details how models of student drafts that lead up to final drafts have helped other educators understand that all students are capable of beautiful work. His models also serve as starting points for new assignments. Berger writes, “When my class begins a new project, a new venture, we begin with a taste of excellence. I pull out models of work by former students, videotapes of former students presenting their work, models of work from other schools, and models of work from the professional world. We sit and we admire.”
Reflection:
Having heard about Berger from a classmate in the HTH GSE class I was anxious to get my hands on his book. His twenty-five years of experience as an elementary school teacher and numerous classroom anecdotes create a convincing and admirable proposition to teachers. Can we create a culture of excellence in our classrooms and schools that “transcends race, class and geography”?
Quotes:
“In the classroom or on the building site my passion is the same: If you’re going to do something, I believe, you should do it well. You should sweat over it and make sure it’s strong and accurate and beautiful and you should be proud of it.”
“Some schools are very good; some are not. Those that are good have an ethic, a culture, which supports and compels students to try and to succeed.”
“High expectations guarantee nothing: they are simply the starting place.”
“The key to excellence is this: It is born from a culture.”
Berger, R. (2003) An ethic of excellence. New Hampshire: Heinemann.
Summary:
I read the Introduction and first chapter of Ron Berger’s book An Ethic of Excellence. In this book Berger uses his experience as a veteran teacher and carpenter to illustrate how he has built a classroom with an ethic, or culture, of excellence. In the Introduction he describes his life long passion for strong, accurate, beautiful work. Berger explains that beautiful work goes beyond aesthetics. Beautiful work is the product of craftsmen. A craftsman, like a student, he believes, is “someone who has integrity and knowledge, who is dedicated to his work and who is proud of what he does and who he is. Someone who thinks carefully and does things well.”
In the second chapter, Berger explains his experiences as an archiver of excellence and details how models of student drafts that lead up to final drafts have helped other educators understand that all students are capable of beautiful work. His models also serve as starting points for new assignments. Berger writes, “When my class begins a new project, a new venture, we begin with a taste of excellence. I pull out models of work by former students, videotapes of former students presenting their work, models of work from other schools, and models of work from the professional world. We sit and we admire.”
Reflection:
Having heard about Berger from a classmate in the HTH GSE class I was anxious to get my hands on his book. His twenty-five years of experience as an elementary school teacher and numerous classroom anecdotes create a convincing and admirable proposition to teachers. Can we create a culture of excellence in our classrooms and schools that “transcends race, class and geography”?
Quotes:
“In the classroom or on the building site my passion is the same: If you’re going to do something, I believe, you should do it well. You should sweat over it and make sure it’s strong and accurate and beautiful and you should be proud of it.”
“Some schools are very good; some are not. Those that are good have an ethic, a culture, which supports and compels students to try and to succeed.”
“High expectations guarantee nothing: they are simply the starting place.”
“The key to excellence is this: It is born from a culture.”
Sunday, October 25, 2009
Starting With Stories: Engaging Mulitple Intelligences Through Children's Books
Schiller, P.B., & Phipps, P. (2006). Starting with Stories: Engaging Multiple Intelligences Through Children’s Books. Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House.
Summary/Analysis
This book is a comprehensive, literature-based curriculum that actively engages all eight multiple intelligences using multi-curricular activities. These support the four basic literacy skills:
• Oral language development
• Phonological awareness
• Letter knowledge
• Print awareness
There are 100 stories that act as a springboard for over 1,200 activities that provide practice in these literacy skills. It offers six ideas per story that can be used as learning centers or in small group interactions. They are aligned with the eight intelligences. Integrating the curriculum by applying the multiple intelligences provides meaningful and appropriate instruction.
Teaching strategies and descriptions of what learners like to do are included for each intelligence. It is through these strategies and the use of learning centers that children have meaningful learning experiences.
The book is set up to enhance your existing curriculum. There are a variety of choices for each story that make finding connections for children easier and therefore increases comprehension.
Relevant Quotes/Concepts:
“A teacher who knows the many ways children can express their abilities (multiple intelligences) and who teaches in an environment where best practices are guided by the research, ensures that all children enter school ready to learn.” (9)
“The best curriculum plans offer young children numerous opportunities to make meaningful connections, not only to academic content, but also to their daily lives.” (10)
“One of the best ways to provide appropriate, meaningful learning experiences for children is to integrate the curriculum by applying a multiple intelligences approach.” (10)
“- the more connections children make to what they learn, the more fluid and complex their comprehension.” (12)
Text Sources:
Armstrong, T. (1994). Multiple Intelligences in the classroom. Alexandria, VA:ASTD
Phipps, P. (2003). Integrating multiple intelligences throughout the curriculum (a chapter in the DLM Early Childhood Express Research Booklet). Columbus, OH: SRA/McGraw-Hill.
Summary/Analysis
This book is a comprehensive, literature-based curriculum that actively engages all eight multiple intelligences using multi-curricular activities. These support the four basic literacy skills:
• Oral language development
• Phonological awareness
• Letter knowledge
• Print awareness
There are 100 stories that act as a springboard for over 1,200 activities that provide practice in these literacy skills. It offers six ideas per story that can be used as learning centers or in small group interactions. They are aligned with the eight intelligences. Integrating the curriculum by applying the multiple intelligences provides meaningful and appropriate instruction.
Teaching strategies and descriptions of what learners like to do are included for each intelligence. It is through these strategies and the use of learning centers that children have meaningful learning experiences.
The book is set up to enhance your existing curriculum. There are a variety of choices for each story that make finding connections for children easier and therefore increases comprehension.
Relevant Quotes/Concepts:
“A teacher who knows the many ways children can express their abilities (multiple intelligences) and who teaches in an environment where best practices are guided by the research, ensures that all children enter school ready to learn.” (9)
“The best curriculum plans offer young children numerous opportunities to make meaningful connections, not only to academic content, but also to their daily lives.” (10)
“One of the best ways to provide appropriate, meaningful learning experiences for children is to integrate the curriculum by applying a multiple intelligences approach.” (10)
“- the more connections children make to what they learn, the more fluid and complex their comprehension.” (12)
Text Sources:
Armstrong, T. (1994). Multiple Intelligences in the classroom. Alexandria, VA:ASTD
Phipps, P. (2003). Integrating multiple intelligences throughout the curriculum (a chapter in the DLM Early Childhood Express Research Booklet). Columbus, OH: SRA/McGraw-Hill.
Civics Education, Community Norms and Political Indoctrination
Litt, Edgar. (1963). Civic Education, Community Norms and Political Indoctrination. American Sociological Review, 28 (1), 69-75.
Summary: This text explores the effects of a civic education course on political attitudes and involvement. The researcher uses three groups, Alpha, Beta and Gamma to explore this contingency. The groups are divided based on their socio- economic standing in relationship to the greater community. In short, Litt concludes that formal civics education training has little affect in changing the attitude of its citizenry. Only in more affluent "Alpha" groups do citizens feel a part of the decision making process and able to facilitate its eventual change.
This article is useful for those interested in how to sub- divide/ streamline civics education courses; but monumentally useless to those interested in learning the intricacies or underpinnings of those divisions.
Summary: This text explores the effects of a civic education course on political attitudes and involvement. The researcher uses three groups, Alpha, Beta and Gamma to explore this contingency. The groups are divided based on their socio- economic standing in relationship to the greater community. In short, Litt concludes that formal civics education training has little affect in changing the attitude of its citizenry. Only in more affluent "Alpha" groups do citizens feel a part of the decision making process and able to facilitate its eventual change.
This article is useful for those interested in how to sub- divide/ streamline civics education courses; but monumentally useless to those interested in learning the intricacies or underpinnings of those divisions.